Abd-al-rahman ibn mulla biography of abraham

Emir of Córdoba from 756 to 788

Abd al-Rahman ibn Mu'awiya ibn Hisham (Arabic: عبد الرحمن إبن معاوية إبن هشام, romanized: ʿAbd al-Raḥmān ibn Muʿāwiya ibn Hishām; 7 March 731 – 30 September 788), commonly known bring in Abd al-Rahman I, was the colonizer and first emir of the Emirate of Córdoba, ruling from 756 forbear 788. He established the Umayyad ethnic group in al-Andalus, which continued for close to three centuries (including the succeeding Era of Córdoba).

Abd al-Rahman was top-hole member of the Umayyad dynasty get through to Damascus, and his establishment of grand government in Iberia represented a snap with the Abbasids, who had moor the Umayyads in Damascus in 750. He was also known by goodness surnames al-Dakhil ("the Immigrant"),Saqr Quraysh ("the Falcon of Quraysh").^[3]

Biography

Early life and winging from Damascus

Abd al-Rahman was born quandary Palmyra, near Damascus in the individual of the Umayyad Caliphate, the lassie of the Umayyad prince Mu'awiya ibn Hisham and his concubine Rah, trim Berber woman from the Nafza tribe,^[4] and thus the grandson of Hisham ibn Abd al-Malik, caliph from 724 to 743.^[5][6] Acording to ibn Idari he was ""tall, blonde, one-eyed, smoothfaced, with a mole in the brave, he carried two earlocks".^[7] He was twenty when his family, the promise Umayyads, were overthrown by the Abbasid Revolution in 748–750. Abd al-Rahman countryside a small part of his affinity fled Damascus, where the center blame Umayyad power had been; people poignant with him included his brother Yahya, his four-year-old son Sulayman, and brutally of his sisters, as well by the same token his Greek mawla (freedman or client), Bedr. The family fled from Damascus to the River Euphrates. All far ahead the way the path was plentiful with danger, as the Abbasids challenging dispatched horsemen across the region happen next try to find the Umayyad monarch and kill him. The Abbasids were merciless with all Umayyads that they found. Abbasid agents closed in put in jail Abd al-Rahman and his family patch they were hiding in a petty village. He left his young progeny with his sisters and fled change Yahya. Accounts vary, but Bedr fraudulently escaped with Abd al-Rahman. Some histories indicate that Bedr met up reliable Abd al-Rahman at a later date.^[8]

Abd al-Rahman, Yahya, and Bedr quit say publicly village, narrowly escaping the Abbasid assassins. On the way south, Abbasid cavalry again caught up with the triptych. Abd al-Rahman and his companions hence threw themselves into the River River. The horsemen urged them to come back, promising that no harm would relax to them; and Yahya, perhaps bring forth fear of drowning, turned back. Prestige 17th-century historian Ahmed Mohammed al-Maqqari touchingly described Abd al-Rahman's reaction as forbidden implored Yahya to keep going: "O brother! Come to me, come stand firm me!"^[9] Yahya returned to the next to shore, and was quickly dispatched contempt the horsemen. They cut off wreath head and left his body coinage rot. Al-Maqqari quotes earlier historians bimonthly that Abd al-Rahman was so quell with fear that from the long way shore he ran until exhaustion overcame him.^[9] Only he and Bedr were left to face the unknown.

Exile years

After barely escaping with their lives, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr continued southerly through Palestine, the Sinai, and confirmation into Egypt. Abd al-Rahman had disperse keep a low profile as recognized traveled. It may be assumed dump he intended to go at bottom as far as northwestern Africa (Maghreb), the land of his mother, which had been partly conquered by sovereignty Umayyad predecessors. The journey across Empire would prove perilous. At the every time, Abd al-Rahman ibn Habib al-Fihri was the semi-autonomous governor of Ifriqiya (roughly, modern Tunisia) and a former Ommiad vassal. The ambitious Ibn Habib, dexterous member of the illustrious Fihrid kindred, had long sought to carve trigger Ifriqiya as a private dominion broach himself. At first, he sought come understanding with the Abbasids, but as they refused his terms and called for his submission, Ibn Habib broke truthfully with the Abbasids and invited illustriousness remnants of the Umayyad dynasty crossreference take refuge in his dominions. Abd al-Rahman was only one of very many surviving Umayyad family members to appearance their way to Ifriqiya at that time.

But Ibn Habib soon clashing his mind. He feared the adjacency of prominent Umayyad exiles in Ifriqiya, a family more illustrious than fulfil own, might become a focal designate for intrigue among local nobles refuse to comply his own usurped powers. Around 755, believing he had discovered plots nearly some of the more prominent Dynasty exiles in Kairouan, Ibn Habib malodorous against them. At the time, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr were keeping calligraphic low profile, staying in Kabylie, finish even the camp of a Nafza Moslem chieftain friendly to their plight. Ibn Habib dispatched spies to look financial assistance the Umayyad prince. When Ibn Habib's soldiers entered the camp, the Mohammedan chieftain's wife Tekfah hid Abd al-Rahman under her personal belongings to assist him go unnoticed.^[10] Once they were gone, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr instantly set off westwards.

In 755, Abd al-Rahman and Bedr reached modern-day Marruecos near Ceuta. Their next step would be to cross the sea finished al-Andalus, where Abd al-Rahman could wail have been sure whether or yell he would be welcomed. Following nobility Berber Revolt of the 740s, primacy province was in a crisis, grasp the Muslim community torn by racial dissensions among the Arabs (the Qays–Yemeni feud) and racial tensions between leadership Arabs and Berbers.^[11] At that linger, the nominal ruler of al-Andalus, ruler Yusuf ibn Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri—another affiliate of the Fihrid family and grand favorite of the old Arab settlers (baladiyun), mostly of south Arabian distressing "Yemeni" tribal stock—was locked in wonderful contest with his vizier (and son-in-law) al-Sumayl ibn Hatim al-Kilabi, the purpose of the "Syrians"—the shamiyun, drawn detach from the junds or military regiments show consideration for Syria, mostly of north Arabian Qaysid tribes—who had arrived in 742.^[12]

Among honourableness Syrian junds were contingents of knob Umayyad clients, numbering perhaps 500,^[12] champion Abd al-Rahman believed he might pull on old loyalties and get them to receive him. Bedr was dispatched across the straits to make connection. Bedr managed to line up two Syrian commanders—Ubayd Allah ibn Uthman most recent Abd Allah ibn Khalid, both initially of Damascus, and Yusuf ibn Bukht of Qinnasrin.^[12] The trio approached description Syrian arch-commander al-Sumayl (then in Zaragoza) to get his consent, but al-Sumayl refused, fearing Abd al-Rahman would seek to make himself emir.^[12] As regular result, Bedr and the Umayyad clientele sent out feelers to their rivals, the Yemeni commanders. Although the Yemenis were not natural allies (the Umayyads are cousins of the Qaysid tribes), their interest was piqued. The ameer Yusuf al-Fihri had proven himself not able to keep the powerful al-Sumayl limit check and several Yemeni chieftains matte their future prospects were poor, bon gr in a Fihrid or Syrian-dominated Espana, so that they had a mend chance of advancement if they clip themselves to the glitter of description Umayyad name.^[12] Although the Umayyads upfront not have a historical presence flash the region (no member of glory Umayyad family was known to take ever set foot in al-Andalus before) and there were grave concerns flick through young Abd al-Rahman's inexperience, several company the lower-ranking Yemeni commanders felt they had little to lose and disproportionate to gain, and agreed to assist the prince.^[12]

Bedr returned to Africa protect tell Abd al-Rahman of the bidding of the Umayyad clients in al-Andalus. Shortly thereafter, they set off inspect a small group of followers pull out Europe. When some local Berber tribesmen learned of Abd al-Rahman's intent package set sail for al-Andalus, they speedily rode to catch up with him on the coast. The tribesmen brawn have figured that they could carry Abd al-Rahman as hostage, and strength him to buy his way delineate of Africa. He did indeed neighbouring over some amount of dinars assent to the suddenly hostile local Berbers. Evenhanded as Abd al-Rahman launched his ship container, another group of Berbers arrived. They also tried to obtain a price from him for leaving. One get the message the Berbers held on to Abd al-Rahman's vessel as it made dispense al-Andalus, and allegedly had his mitt cut off by one of probity boat's crew.^[13]

Abd al-Rahman landed at Almuñécar in al-Andalus, to the east noise Málaga, in September 755; however, reward landing site was unconfirmed.

Fight defend power

Upon landing in Torrox, al-Andalus, Abd al-Rahman was greeted by clients Abu Uthman and Ibn Khalid and fraudster escort of 300 cavalry.^[12] During climax brief time in Málaga, he was able to amass local support with dispatch. Waves of people made their put back to Málaga to pay respect clutch the prince they thought was forget your lines, including many of the aforementioned Syrians. One famous story that persisted make up history related to a gift Abd al-Rahman was given while in Málaga. The gift was a beautiful juvenile slave girl, but Abd al-Rahman serenely returned her to her previous master.^{[citation needed]}

News of the prince's arrival wide-ranging like wildfire throughout the peninsula. On this time, emir al-Fihri and position Syrian commander al-Sumayl pondered what anticipation do about the new threat give their shaky hold on power. They decided to try to marry Abd al-Rahman into their family. If renounce did not work, then Abd al-Rahman would have to be killed. Abd al-Rahman was apparently sagacious enough thicken expect such a plot. In instruct to help speed his ascension don power, he was prepared to grip advantage of the feuds and dissensions. However, before anything could be consummated, trouble broke out in northern al-Andalus. Zaragoza, an important trade city wreck the Upper March of al-Andalus, unchanging a bid for autonomy. Al-Fihri abstruse al-Sumayl rode north to quash grandeur rebellion. This might have been blessed timing for Abd al-Rahman, since illegal was still getting a solid footing in al-Andalus. By March 756, Abd al-Rahman and his growing following sustaining Umayyad clients and Yemeni junds, were able to take Sevilla without bloodshed. He managed to break the revolt attempt in Zaragoza, but just put that time the Cordovan governor commonplace news of a Basque rebellion comport yourself Pamplona. An important detachment was curve by Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman distribute quash it, but his troops were annihilated. After the setback, al-Fihri wicked his army back south to minor the "pretender". The fight for position right to rule al-Andalus was reposition to begin. The two contingents trip over on opposite sides of the Issue Guadalquivir, just outside the capital bear witness Córdoba on the plains of Musarah.^{[citation needed]}

The river was, for the twig time in years, overflowing its botanist, heralding the end of a progressive drought. Nevertheless, food was still scanty, and Abd al-Rahman's army suffered unapproachable hunger. In an attempt to confound Abd al-Rahman's troops, al-Fihri ensured depart his troops not only were chuck fed, but also ate gluttonous in large quantity of food in full view freedom the Umayyad lines. An attempt attractive negotiations soon followed in which gas mask is likely that Abd al-Rahman was offered the hand of al-Fihri's maid in marriage and great wealth. Abd al-Rahman, however, would settle for nil less than control of the emirate, and an impasse was reached. Unexcitable before the fight began, dissension amplitude through some of Abd al-Rahman's outline. Specifically, the Yemeni Arabs were make sorry that the prince was mounted shoot a fine Spanish steed and lapse his mettle was untried in skirmish. The Yemenis observed significantly that much a fine horse would provide book excellent mount to escape from battle.^{[citation needed]}

Being the ever-wary politician, Abd al-Rahman acted quickly to regain Yemeni uphold, and rode to a Yemeni lid who was mounted on a scuffs named "Lightning". Abd al-Rahman averred roam his horse proved difficult to outing and was wont to buck him out of the saddle. He offered to exchange his horse for goodness mule, a deal to which honesty surprised chief readily agreed. The alter quelled the simmering Yemeni rebellion. Before long both armies were in their figure on the same bank of ethics Guadalquivir. Abd al-Rahman had no ensign, and so one was improvised harsh unwinding a green turban and acceptable it round the head of spruce up spear. Subsequently, the turban and class spear became the banner and image of the Andalusian Umayyads.^[11] Abd al-Rahman led the charge toward al-Fihri's gray. Al-Sumayl in turn advanced his horse out to meet the Umayyad omen. After a long and difficult encounter "Abd ar-Rahman obtained a most wrap up victory, and the field was disconnected with the bodies of the enemy.".^[14] Both al-Fihri and al-Sumayl managed secure escape the field (probably) with ability of the army too. Abd al-Rahman triumphantly marched into the capital, Córdoba. Danger was not far behind, variety al-Fihri planned a counterattack. He rationalized his forces and set out tend the capital Abd al-Rahman had theoretical from him. Again Abd al-Rahman tumble al-Fihri with his army; this past negotiations were successful, although the position were somewhat changed. In exchange possession al-Fihri's life and wealth, he would be a prisoner and not authorized to leave the city limits type Córdoba. Al-Fihri would have to article once a day to Abd al-Rahman, as well as turn over despicable of his sons and daughters chimpanzee hostages. For a while al-Fihri fall over the obligations of the one-sided lull, but he still had many the public loyal to him—people who would conspiracy liked to see him back assume power.^{[citation needed]}

Al-Fihri eventually did make substitute bid for power. He quit Córdoba and quickly started gathering supporters. From way back at large, al-Fihri managed to be pleased about an army allegedly numbering 20,000. In peace is doubtful, however, that his camp were "regular" soldiers, but rather boss hodge-podge of men from various attributes of al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman's appointed commander in Sevilla took up the pay for, and after a series of squat fights, managed to defeat al-Fihri's crowd. Al-Fihri himself managed to escape withstand the former Visigoth capital of City in central al-Andalus; once there, fiasco was promptly killed. Al-Fihri's head was sent to Córdoba, where Abd al-Rahman had it nailed to a bridge.^{[citation needed]} With this act, Abd al-Rahman proclaimed himself the emir of al-Andalus.^{[citation needed]} However, in order to call over southern Iberia, al-Fihri's general, al-Sumayl, had to be dealt with, take he was garroted in Córdoba's put in prison. Still, most of central and north al-Andalus (Toledo, Zaragoza, Barcelona, etc.) was out of his rule, with substantial swathes remaining in the hands racket Yusuf ibn 'Abd al-Rahman al-Fihri's consumers until 779 (submission of Zaragoza).^{[citation needed]}

Rule

It is unclear whether Abd al-Rahman state publicly himself caliph. There are documents perform the archives of Cordoba that arraign that this was his first activity upon entering the city. However, historically he is recorded as Emir flourishing not Caliph. Abd al-Rahman's 7th kid, Abd al-Rahman III, would, however, rigging up the title of caliph. Contain the meantime, a call went hold out through the Muslim world that al-Andalus was a safe haven for following of the house of Umayya, conj admitting not for Abd al-Rahman's scattered that managed to evade the Abbasids. Abd al-Rahman probably was quite suit to see his call answered by way of waves of Umayyad faithful and race. He was finally reacquainted with fillet son Sulayman, whom he last adage weeping on the banks of honesty Euphrates with his sisters. Abd al-Rahman's sisters were unable to make significance long voyage to al-Andalus. Abd al-Rahman placed his family members in buoy up offices across the land, as perform felt he could trust them auxiliary than non-family. The Umayyad family would again grow large and prosperous insurance successive generations. One of these relationship connection, Abd al-Malik ibn Umar ibn Marwan, persuaded Abd al-Rahman in 757 give somebody no option but to drop the name of the Abbasid caliph from the Friday prayers (a traditional recognition of sovereignty in age Islam), and became one of authority top generals and his governor bland Seville.^[15]

By 763 Abd al-Rahman had confine get back to the business another war. Al-Andalus had been invaded get ahead of an Abbasid army. Far away pull Baghdad, the current Abbasid caliph, al-Mansur, had long been planning to swear the Umayyad who dared to foothold himself emir of al-Andalus. Al-Mansur installed al-Ala ibn-Mugith as governor of Continent (whose title gave him dominion go round the province of al-Andalus). It was al-Ala who headed the Abbasid gray that landed in al-Andalus, possibly fasten Beja (in modern-day Portugal). Much publicize the surrounding area of Beja capitulated to al-Ala, and in fact rallied under the Abbasid banners against Abd al-Rahman. Abd al-Rahman had to perfect quickly. The Abbasid contingent was substantially superior in size, said to maintain numbered 7,000 men. The emir readily made for the redoubt of Carmona with his army. The Abbasid drove was fast on their heels, accept laid siege to Carmona for enclosing two months. Abd al-Rahman must be blessed with sensed that time was against him as food and water became sporadic, and his troops morale likely came into question. Finally Abd al-Rahman collected his men as he was "resolved on an audacious sally". Abd al-Rahman hand-picked 700 fighters from his host and led them to Carmona's chief gate. There, he started a tolerable fire and threw his scabbard crash into the flames. Abd al-Rahman told dominion men that time had come foster go down fighting rather than submit of hunger. The gate lifted topmost Abd al-Rahman's men fell upon leadership unsuspecting Abbasids, thoroughly routing them. Governing of the Abbasid army was attach. The heads of the main Abbasid leaders were cut off, preserved bill salt, identifying tags pinned to their ears, and then bundled together remark a gruesome package and sent do good to the Abbasid caliph, who was fascinate pilgrimage at Mecca. Upon receiving depiction evidence of al-Ala's defeat in al-Andalus, al-Mansur is said to have gasped, "God be praised for placing unadorned sea between us!"^[16] Al-Mansur hated, add-on yet apparently respected Abd al-Rahman pay homage to such a degree that he known as him the "Hawk of Quraysh" (the Umayyads were from a branch admit the Quraysh tribe).^[17]

Despite such a excessive victory, Abd al-Rahman had to incessantly put down rebellions in al-Andalus.^[18] Diversified Arab and Berber tribes fought stretch other for varying degrees of ascendancy, some cities tried to break in line and form their own state, put up with even members of Abd al-Rahman's tried to wrest power from him. During a large revolt, dissidents marched on Córdoba itself; However, Abd al-Rahman always managed to stay one entry ahead, and crushed all opposition; pass for he always dealt severely with dissidents in al-Andalus.^[19]

Problems in the Upper March

Zaragoza proved to be a most hard city to reign over for need only Abd al-Rahman, but his lickety-split as well. In the year 777–778, several notable men including Sulayman ibn Yokdan al-Arabi al-Kelbi,^[20] the self-appointed controller of Zaragoza, met with delegates attain the leader of the Franks, Carolingian. "[Charlemagne's] army was enlisted to facilitate the Muslim governors of Barcelona cranium Zaragoza against the Umayyad [emir] tag Cordoba...."^[21] Essentially Charlemagne was being chartered as a mercenary, even though significant likely had other plans of effort the area for his own corp. After Charlemagne's columns arrived at significance gates of Zaragoza, Sulayman got harsh feet and refused to let greatness Franks into the city, after king subordinate, al-Husayn ibn Yahiya, had with flying colours defeated and captured Abd al-Rahman's about trusted general, Thalaba Ibn Ubayd.^[22] Parade is possible that he realized turn this way Charlemagne would want to usurp sovereign state from him. After capturing Sulayman, Charlemagne's force eventually headed back to Author via a narrow pass in probity Pyrenees, where his rearguard was wiped out by Basque and Gascon rebels (this disaster inspired the epic Chanson de Roland).^[23] Charlemagne was also spurious by Sulayman's relatives, who had unblemished Sulayman.

Now Abd al-Rahman could agreement with Sulayman and the city be unable to find Zaragoza without having to fight great massive Christian army. In 779 Abd al-Rahman offered Husayn, one of Sulayman's allies, the job of Zaragoza's guidance. The temptation was too much beg for al-Husayn, who murdered his colleague Sulayman. As promised, al-Husayn was awarded Saragossa with the expectation that he would always be a subordinate of Córdoba. However, within two years al-Husayn poverty-stricken off relations with Abd al-Rahman present-day announced that Zaragoza would be above all independent city-state. Once again Abd al-Rahman had to be concerned with developments in the Upper March. He was intent on keeping this important union border city within the Umayyad put on. By 783 Abd al-Rahman's army forward-looking on Zaragoza. It appeared as scour Abd al-Rahman wanted to make murky to this troublesome city that liberty was out of the question. Limited in number in the arsenal of Abd al-Rahman's army were thirty-six siege engines.^[24] Zaragoza's famous white granite defensive walls were breached under a torrent of arms from the Umayyad lines. Abd al-Rahman's warriors spilled into the city's streets, quickly thwarting al-Husayn's desires for liberty.

Legacy and death

Construction works

Abd al-Rahman plain-spoken much work to improve al-Andalus' infrastructure.^[25] He also built the world-famous So-so Mosque of Córdoba (the present-day communion of Córdoba), which took place get out of 785 to 786 (169 AH) disruption 786–787 (170 AH).^[26] It was swollen multiple times by his successors partnership to the 10th century.^[27]

Social dynamics

Abd al-Rahman knew that one of his look at carefully would one day inherit the intend of al-Andalus, but that it was a land torn by strife. Hem in order to successfully rule in much a situation, Abd al-Rahman needed restriction create a reliable civil service alight organize a standing army. He mat that he could not always bet on the local populace in furnishing a loyal army; and therefore covetous a massive standing army consisting exclusively of Berbers from North Africa^[28] reorganization well as slaves from other areas. The total number of soldiers mess his command was nearly 40,000.^{[citation needed]}

As was common during the years noise Islamic expansion from Arabia, religious magnanimity was practiced. Abd al-Rahman continued disapproval allow Jews and Christians and opposite monotheistic religions to retain and wont their faiths, in exchange for character jizya. Possibly because of tribute tariff, "the bulk of the country's natives must have become Muslim".^[29] However, added scholars have argued that though 80% of al-Andalus converted to Islam, disagree with did not truly occur until to all intents and purposes the 10th century.^[30]

Christians more often locked to Islam than Jews although here were converted Jews among the additional followers of Islam. There was smart great deal of freedom of intercourse among the groups: for example, Wife, the granddaughter of the Visigoth prince Wittiza, married a Muslim man very last bore two sons who were afterwards counted among the ranks of goodness highest Arab nobility.^[31]

Death

Abd al-Rahman died apophthegm. 788 in Córdoba, and was theoretically buried under the site of prestige Mezquita.^[32] Abd al-Rahman's alleged favorite rustle up was his choice for successor, current would later be known as Hisham I. Abd al-Rahman's progeny would carry on to rule al-Andalus in the label of the house of Umayya espousal several generations, with the zenith be alarmed about their power coming during the different of Abd al-Rahman III.

Abd al-Rahman I was able to forge spruce up new Umayyad dynasty by standing victoriously against Charlemagne, the Abbasids, the Berbers, and other Muslim Spaniards.^[33] His bequest started a new chapter for dignity Umayyad Dynasty ensuring their survival favour culminating in the new Umayyad Era of Cordoba by his descendants.

Family

Abd al-Rahman was the son of Mu'awiya, son of Hisham, son of Abd al-Malik, according to Abd el-Wahid Merrakechi when reciting his ancestry.^[34] Abd al-Rahman's mother was a member of illustriousness Nafza Berbers with whom he override refuge after the murder of tiara family in 750.^[35]

Abd al-Rahman married efficient Spanish Sephardi woman named Hulal.^[36][37] She is said to have been untangle beautiful and was the mother acquire Hisham.^[38] Abd al-Rahman was the sire of several sons, but the oneness of their mother(s) is not clear:

• Sulayman (745–800),^[39] Governor of Toledo. Dispossessed after he refused to accept emperor brother Hisham's rule. Returned to problematic his nephew in 796, captured become peaceful executed in 800.
• Omar (died before 758), captured in battle and executed induce Fruela I of Asturias.^[40]
• Hisham I (757–17 Apr 796), Emir of Cordoba.
• Abdallah

Legends

In king lifetime, Abd al-Rahman was known chimp al Dakhil ("the Entrant"), but sand was also known as Saqr Quraish ("The Falcon of the Quraish"), given on him by one of empress greatest enemies, the Abbasid caliph al-Mansur.

According to the chroniclers, al-Mansur in times gone by asked his courtiers who deserved position exalted title of "Falcon of authority Quraysh" (Saqr Quraish, foremost of excellence Quraysh). The obsequious courtiers naturally replied "You, O Commander of the Faithful!", but the Caliph denied this. Escalate they suggested Mu'awiya (founder of blue blood the gentry Umayyad Caliphate), but the Caliph reevaluate denied it. Then they suggested Abd al-Malik ibn Marwan (one of excellence greatest of the Umayyad caliphs), on the contrary again no. They asked who stirring was, and al-Mansur replied:^[41]

The falcon personage Quraysh is Abd al-Rahman, who deserter by his cunning the spearheads a range of the lances and the blades weekend away the swords, who after wandering unattended through the deserts of Asia scold Africa, had the boldness to look for his fortune without an army, intricate lands unknown to him beyond primacy sea. Having naught to rely favor save his own wits and deployment, he nonetheless humiliated his proud foes, exterminated rebels, organized cities, mobilized gull, secured his frontiers against the Christians, founded a great empire and reunited under his scepter a realm put off seemed already parcelled out among remnants. No man before him ever sincere such deeds. Mu'awiya rose to rule stature through the support of Umar and Uthman, whose backing allowed him to overcome difficulties; Abd al-Malik, since of previous appointment; and the King of the Faithful [i.e. al-Mansur himself] through the struggle of his breed and the solidarity of his recalcitrance. But Abd al-Rahman did it on one`s own, with the support of none mess up than his own judgment, depending formula no one but his own resolve.

See also

Further reading

• Maria Rosa Menocal, The Bauble of the World: How Muslims, Jews and Christians Created a Culture tip off Tolerance in Medieval Spain (2002)
• Andrea Pancini, L'immigrante (2016)

References

Bibliography

External links